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英语写作

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1. and, but作连词 什么时候加逗号

1). and连接两个以上的单词、词组或子句;连接两个相同的单词或短语,以强调某事物的程度、暗示某事继续发生或在一段时间内不断增加;连接两件相继发生的事件;连接两个从句,表示因果关系时不加.

He lay on his back and looked up at the sky. 他仰卧着观看天空。

I’m going to write good jokes and become a good comedian.

三个以上的词(短语)并列的场合,通常只在最后一个词(短语)前加and,这种情形,and之前加不加逗号都可以。如:

I visited London, Paris(,) and Rome.我游览过伦敦、巴黎和罗马。《英汉多功能词典 》

In that room there were a chair, a table(,) and a bed. 在那房间里面有一张椅子、一张桌子和一张床。《21世纪英汉汉英双向词典》

但省略and之前的逗号的情况较多。如

Joan was rich, beautiful and proud. 琼非常有钱, 漂亮且庄重。《简明英汉词典》

one woman, two men and three children 一个女人﹑ 两个男人及三个孩子 《牛津高阶英汉双解学习词典》

He was tall, dark and handsome. 他身材高大、皮肤黝黑、长相帅气。《朗文当代英语词典》

2). 连接两句话,第二句话的意思是第一句的延伸时加逗号,

如:You could only really tell the effects of the disease in the long term, and five years wasn’t long enough.

另外一个解释:

and, but 连接两个独立句子的时候,需要逗号,如果是两个词组或是短语或是各种从句不用逗号.

当有多个并列成分时,最后的并列连词and 或 or 之前一般是不加逗号的。不过近年来,越来越多的作者在表达时出现and 前加逗号的情况,特别是在美国。

另外,当书写长而复杂的句子,特别是有多个并列结构嵌套时,作者往往可在and前加逗号来帮助读者理清句子。

例如:there will be television chat shows hosted by robots, and cars with polllution monitors that will disable them when they offend. 加上and之后,句子变得更加清晰了。

For hit to be re-elected, what is essential is not that his policy works, but that the public believe that it does. (并列表语从句)

As well as 不等同于and. A as well as B侧重在于A,他们地位不平等。另外谓语动词单复数由A决定。

具体可参考: https://www.jianshu.com/p/6e9e11a784c2

关于but的其他用法

如 can/cannot but (只能/不得不), all but (除了…之外都,几乎),but for (=without,如果没有,若不是), but that (若非),but then (=on the other hand, 另一方面),aything but(绝不), 见《考研英语必背500句》P58.

And, But是否能够置于居首

如果前后有关系的,可以大些并且置于句首。但是建议不要太多,适量换成moreover,additionally (in addition), however.

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2. while 作为连词要不要加逗号

加逗号的一般表示转折,例如:some people believe soming is harmful to health, while others consider smoking is helpful for reducing working presure.
不加逗号一般表示“同时…”
例如:I worked for one hour outside while it was raining.

表示转折也可不用逗号的,如下面两句就摘自《牛津高阶英汉双解词典》的 while 词条:

I drink black coffee while he prefers it withcream.我爱喝清咖啡而他喜欢加奶油的。

English is understood all over the world while Turkish is spoken by only a few people outsideTurkey itself. 英语世界通行,但土耳其语离开本国就很少有人说了。

3. such as, for example, and so on, etc, i.e., et al点击打开链接 (具体看链接)

such as 不论有举多少例,并列成分的最后一个前面要加and. 需要注意的是,如果结尾是etc.就不用加了,因为etc.相当于and so on.

such as beijing, shanghai, xiamen and xian (或者 xiamen, and xian)

Human pose estimation refers to the task of recognizing postures by localizing body keypoints (head, shoulders, elbows, wrists, knees, ankles, etc.) from images.

因为such as是对前面的复数名词部分起列举作用,若全部列举出,要改用namely,that is 或者i.e,意思为“即”。

比如 He knows four languages, such as Chinese, English, Japanese and German,应将such as改成namely(或i. e. )及后面加逗号, 即He knows four languages, namely, Chinese, English, Japanese and German.

He knows four languages, that is, Chinese, English, Japanese and German.

当使用 such as ,for example (e.g.) 表示泛泛地举几个例子时,读者已理解后面接着的会是一些不完整的列举, 因此不要再加上 and so on 或 etc. 等!

它们就已经包含“等等”,如果再加etc. 或and so on,就画蛇添足了。

Writing instructors focus on a number of complex skills that require extensive practice, e. g. , organization, clear expression, and logical thinking.

for example用来举例说明某一论点或情况,一般只举同类人或物中的”一个”为例,作插入语,可位于句首、句中或句末。

Cryptography operations, for example, decryption or signing, in a given period only involve the corresponding temporary secret key without further access to the helper.

A lot of people here, for example, Mr John, would rather have coffee. 这儿的许多人,例如约翰先生,宁愿喝咖啡

like也常用来表示举例,可与such as互换。但such as用于举例可以分开使用,此时不可与like互换。

Some warm-blooded animals,like/such as the cat,the dog or the wolf,do not need to hibernate.

He has several such reference books as (分开了) dictionaries and handbooks. 他有几本像字典、手册之类的参考书。

4. 冠词

一个比较全的说明

通常情况下复数名词,物质名词,专有名词前是不加冠词的。但如果是特指的话,复数名词前就要加the

例如:The books on the table are mine.
The water in the glass is hot.

具体的来说,什么时候不需要加冠词,

作者:未某人
链接:https://www.zhihu.com/question/20321498/answer/22869588
来源:知乎
著作权归作者所有。商业转载请联系作者获得授权,非商业转载请注明出处。

  1. 某事物和其他事物比较时,要加定冠词;自身与自身比较,不用定冠词。

以前老师都说形容词最高级前要加冠词
The lake is the deepest in the world.

这一句加了定冠词,因为其实后面的名词省略了,完整说法是the deepest (lake) in the world。再请看下面两个例句:

The lake is deepest at this point. 湖水在这一点最深

I feel happiest when my life is maddest.

以上两句最高级都没有定冠词,因为此处 deepest,happiest,maddest 都只是一般的形容词,你在后面没法再补全一个名词,没有名词被省略。既然只是形容词当然没必要加定冠词了。

2.部分名词作补语起到形容词作用,该名词词义不再是其所指对象本身,而是所指对象的特征,此时该名词相当于形容词,故无需冠词。请看例句

He is fool enough to marry her.

He is no fool.

I’m not philosopher enough to think out a solution.

以上 fool 并非表示笨蛋,而是笨这个特质。Philosopher 也不是哲学家,而是聪明这个特质

3.复数普通名词前有无 the 的区别:有 the 表示全部,没有 the 表示绝大部分(即有例外)。硬要解释的话,应该是有了 the 以后将限制的名词视为一个整体,整体中包括所有个体,没有 the 的话就只是单纯的名词复数,表示多个。我自己说出来都觉得很抽象不好理解,看例句吧~

Americans think that they can win the war. 很多美国人认为可以赢

The Americans are an active people. 美国人是活跃的民族(指所有美国人)

Students of our school are diligent. 我们学校学生大多很勤奋

The students of our school are diligent. 所有学生都勤奋

4.He came to the town. (他对于这座城是个陌生人)他来到城里

He came to town. (他和这座城市有关系)他来到城里

为什么这里没有 the 显得他对于这座城很熟悉,而有了 the 显得陌生?我个人的理解是没有 the 的时候,town 就像是一个专有名词,一说他去了城里,大家都知道他去的是哪座城;有了 the 说明需要特指一下是“这座城”,既然需要特指,说明这座城和他没有特定关系。

5.World War II 无冠词 the Second World War 有冠词

6.though/as 引导让步状语从句,名词前省冠词;但若有形容词修饰,不省略冠词

Child as/though he is, he knows much about the society.

A small child as he is, he can solve the problem.

7.(泛指的物质名称),中文中说某某人是个当官的好材料这个当官的好材料英文就是 leader material,同理,踢球的料就是 football material,这些 XXX material 之前都不加冠词的。当然如果不是泛指,而是特指,那么还是要加 the 的。

8.在新闻标题,标志语,广告词,商品标签等中,为了节约篇幅,会有意省略冠词。

9.大多数专有名词前不要加冠词:

专有地区名称不加:
Do you know Nanjing Road in Shanghai?你知道上海的南京路吗?

海洋、山脉、河流前要加the,the Yangtze River (待确定,记忆方法,这些都有“动”的感觉)

海岛、湖泊、山峰不加the, Mount Everst (待确定,记忆方法,这些都有“禁止”的感觉)

但是由某些由普通名构成的专有名词前要加定冠词the
the People’s Republic of China 中华人民共和国
the United States of America 美利坚合众国
the Ming Dynasty 明朝 the Great Wall长城
the Great Cultural Revolution文化大革命

10.用作称呼语或表示头衔的名词前不要加冠词:
What are you reading,Boy?孩子,你在读什么?
He is head of the factory.他是工厂的厂长。

但如果还有修饰语,就要加the,如 the 32nd President/Chirman of …

11.【泛指的】抽象名词前不加冠词
Life is always presenting new things to children.生活总是不断地呈现给孩子们新的东西。

12. 一些特例

mankind(人类)

人是一个不可数的集合名词,不用复数形式,也不连用冠词。如:This is an invention that benefits mankind. 这是一项造福人类的发明。Mankind has its own problems. 人类有自己的问题。注:mankind 表示“mankind 人(类)”时,虽不可数,但有时却可以表示复数意义,尤其是当其表语是复数时。如:Mankind are intelligent animals. 人是理智的动物。

13. 乐器前要加 the, 球类前不加the

play the violin (乐器)

play football (球类)

14. 大写缩略词前要不要定冠词the分为两种情况

如果缩略词可以单独发音,不加the。比如NASA,NATO,FIFA,TOEFL,APEC;

如果不能单独发音,需加‘the’,比如 the NBA, the FBI, the HBO.

15. 这里补充一个总结 (看不看无所谓,前面机会全包括了)

转载自:英文论文写作有哪些需要注意的细节? - 春时粟的回答 - 知乎 https://www.zhihu.com/question/46825717/answer/652234107

preview

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定冠词基本用法:

1)特指某人、某事
Wellington is the capital of New Zealand. 惠灵顿是新西兰的首都。
2)指世上独一无二的事物
We have friends all over the world .我们的朋友遍天下。
The moon goes around the earth .月亮绕着地球转。
The sun is rising in the east .太阳在东方冉冉升起。
3)重提前文中提到过的人或事物(即文中第二次出现的人或事物)
He, suddenly, saw an isolated house at the foot of the mountain. And curiosity made him approaching the house. 他突然看到山脚下有一栋孤独的房子;好奇心驱使他向那栋房子走了过去。
4)说话人和听话人都熟悉的人或事物
Be sure to bring me the book when you come next time.
你下次来一定要将那本带给我。
5)用于序数词、形容词的最高级形式、和表示方位的名词前
Thanksgiving Day is on the 4th Thursday in November. 感恩节在每年十一月的第四个星期四。
Changjiang is the longest river in China. 长江是中国最长的河流。
Japan lies to the east of China .日本位于中国的东面。
He is one the most famous football stars in the world. 他是世界最著名的足球明星之一。

6)间或用于单数的可数名词前表示泛指
The compass was invented in China.指南针是中国发明的。
The horse is a useful animal .马是有用的动物。
The tiger is in danger of extinct .老虎有绝种的危险。
The monkey is a clever animal. 猴是一种聪明的动物。
注:这种”泛指”是从整个属类的意义上说,而不是”用一个人或物来说明整个属类的 特点”。也就是说,属前者情况时加用定冠词表示泛指,属后者情况时则加不定冠词表示泛指。

7)用于某些由普通名构成的专有名词前
the People’s Republic of China 中华人民共和国
the United States of America 美利坚合众国
the Ming Dynasty 明朝 the Great Wall长城
the Great Cultural Revolution文化大革命

8)用于某些词组中。这种用法是约定束成的,我们只有遵从而无旁的选择。
in the morning ( afternoon , evening )上午(下午,晚上)
go to the cinema 看电影 on the whole总体上
to the best of就……所及 the sane as 和……一样
out of the question不可能的 on the one hand一方面
on the other hand 另一方面 on the average一般说来
on the contrary相反地 in the least 一点,丝毫
in the long run从长远来看 in the event of 万一
in the final analysis归根结底

9)定冠词+形容词使形容词名词化
We always stand for the oppressed and the exploited. 我们永远支持受压迫、受剥削的人们。
The aged are well taken care of in the community. 在这个社区,老人得到了很好的照顾。
She was fond of writing about the unusual. 她喜欢写一些古怪的题材。
The school for the deaf and the blind is just newly built. 那所聋哑人学校是刚刚新建的。

元音开头的单数名词前用不定冠词an

注意在元音开头的名词前用an,/j/ 和 /w/叫做半元音,这两个都被归类为辅音!

A European ([ˌjʊrəˈpiːən] ) is a person who comes from Europe.

字母u其实是辅音开头[juː] !

5. 时态问题

美国人的文章里,大多全用一般现在时。

点击打开链接

if 引导的真实条件句中的时态

除了if引导强调 【个人主观意愿,如愿望请求命令】 和 【与事实不相符的假设】 的虚拟语气外,if引导的真实的条件句用于陈述语气,假设的情况可能发生。

http://ishare.iask.sina.com.cn/f/34zCicivVbQ.html

suggest 表示建议时用虚拟语气,表明或者暗示的意思时不用虚拟语气

当suggest表示建议的时候,后面的宾语从句要用虚拟语气,用should do的形式(should可以省略)。

当suggest 作“表明、暗示”或“使人想到”时,不用虚拟语气。

President Macron of France has just suggested that Europe (should) build its own military 这里是虚拟语气的一种用法。

His expression suggests that he has had a good journey. 他的表情表明他旅途很愉快。(这里就是根据证明表明,并不是虚拟语气)

if引导虚拟语气:《考研英语500句》P6 -17th和P22 -78th

分为对现在/将来的虚拟,过去的虚拟,不同的句式固定搭配would或者should,需要注意。虚拟语气把事态都往后推了一步,例如条件句中把将来的shall —> should,be —> were to。这里可以把情态动词shall/will/may等看作助动词,自然就有过去的时态了。

主句和从句中的动作发生有先后关系时,需要注意两者的时态

比如:After he had finished his homework, he went to bed. 做完作业后,他上床睡觉了。

She felt humble just as she had (felt) whe she had fisrt taken a good look at herself. 此句中,as引导方式状语从句,when引导时间状语从句。看她自己发生在感觉之前,所以是过去的过去。

注意: before, after 引导的时间状语从句中,由于 before 和 after 本身已表达了动作的先后关系,若主、从句表示的动作紧密相连,则主、从句都用一般过去时。如:
After he closed the door, he left the classroom.他关上了门,离开了教室。

瞬时性动词与延续性动词的区别

瞬时性动词又叫点动词,也是可以用于现在完成时态

例如:The train has arrived. Have you bought the bok?

但由于动作是瞬时间完成的所以不能与for或since引出的时间状语连用。因此要留心后面的时间状语表示的是一段时间还是一个时间点**,这往往决定了瞬时性动词与延续性动词的选择。例如

His fatherhas died for two years. (误)

His fatherhas been dead for two years. (对)

错:When did she know my e-mall address?

对:When did she get to know my e-maail address?她什么时候知道我的e-mail地址? 不能延续的动作,这种动作发生后立即结束

6. respectively, individually, each, separatelly

each每个,各自地 adj, adv,

eg. They cut the cakein two andatehalf each

hese apples willgohalf apoundeach.

respectively各自地, 前面提到了一种顺序,后面的与前面的一一对应,用于句尾

individually个别地,个性的

separately分别地,分开地

7. 将句子的main idea核心放在开头,其他表示时间,条件等放在后面

8. 英语写作检查软件

点击打开链接

9. 不应该否定词的缩写,而应该使用完整形式

如cannot (特殊的一个,中间没有空格), is not, do not

10. 主谓一致

1. both…and…“两者都…”,连接名词或代词作主语时,谓语动词用复数形式,不受‘就近原则’的限制。如:

Both you and I are students.
Both Li Ming and Wei Hua are good at English.

2. and 连接两个成分作主语时,谓语要用复数形式。

如,You and she are on duty today.

3.主谓一致采用就近原则的情况:

1). 当连词或连词短语连接两个成分,而重点强调的是“其中之一”的时候,要采用就近原则。

or, either…or…, neither…nor…, not only…but also…等连接主语时,谓语动词以后面的那个主语为主。 如,

You or he is right.

Either your teacher or your classmates were there.

Neither you nor he is able to finish the work in an hour.

Not only your parents but also I am proud of you . Not only he but also all his family are keen on concerts

2). and 连接两个成分作主语时,谓语要用复数形式。如,You and she are on duty today.

3). there be A and B 句型,there be的be动词由靠的近的A决定!

There is a book and two pens in my bag.

4). as well as 连接主语时,谓语动词的单复数必须与前面那个保持一致。

这是因为as well as 不等同于and! A as well as B 其实侧重在A,相当于not only B, but alse A. 这样理解的话谓语单复数就和重要的A保持一致了。

比如:

John, as well as Mary, come to the party.

John,as well as Mary, comes to the party. 对

5) rather than 连接两个名词或代词作主语时谓语动词应与rather than 前面的名词或代词在人称和数上保持一致(我感觉还是因为其实侧重在前者,所以和前者保持一致)。

You rather than Smith are going to go camping. 是你而不是我要去要野营。

4. 有同位语时,谓语动词与主语保持一致.

We each have a cellphone: each是we的同位语,我们每个人的意思,谓语动词的数取决于主语,不取决于同位语each.

但若是Each of us……each 就是主语 后面谓语动词就是单数同位语:一个名词(或其它形式)对另一个名词或代词进行…

5. more than one

分析如下:

1). more than one +单数名词 作主语时, 尽管从意义上看是复数, 谓语动词用单数 (要从形式一致来考虑).

例如: More than one boy【has read】the story. 注意 more than one boy中的boy用的是单数。

不止一个男孩已经读了这个故事。

2). more than one +数词+复数名词 作主语时,谓语动词用复数.

例如: More than one thousand men and women【are working】in this factory.

有1000多男女工人在这家工厂做工。

3). more + 复数名词 + than one 作主语时,谓语动词用复数.

例如:More boys than one【have read】the story.

6. a set of + 复数名词 + 谓语动词用单复数都有可能

当“a set of + 复数名词”作主语时,谓语动词用单数或复数都有可能

A set of guidance notes is provided to assist applicants in completing the form. 有一系列注意事项,指导申请人填写表格

An important set of ideas have been advanced by the biologist Rupert Sheldrake. 生物学家鲁珀特•谢尔德雷克已提出了一整套重要的观点。

11. 否定句和疑问句中any接不可数名词或者可数名词的复数

如, You can’t go out without any shoes

any 也可以用在if或者whether之后,或者某些动词之后,表示 任何的,任一的,此时与可数名词单数使用。

如, take any book you like. Any color is OK. Any teacher will tell you that.

12. of 的前后名词的单复数

The teller mechine can accepts any dinomination of coins and notes 为什么这里的coin,note用复数,而dinomination是单数形式?

domination前面有any修饰
英语里面的可数名词一般很少单独以单数出现,要么有冠词,要么用复数
这里的coins和notes都是泛指,所以用复数

13. 并列结构,前后一致的问题以及省略用法

rather (than)

1.rather than后面一般是 rather than do sth. 跟情态动词would,should,will等连用构成固定搭配,有时rather than可以分开,意为“宁可”、“与其……倒不如”. 此时,”rather than+ do **sth**”.
例如:
I’d rather than go there by air.我宁愿乘飞机去那里.

I’d rather have a quiet night, reading my favorite book. 这里would rather意思是“宁愿、宁可、更、最好、还是为好”,后接动词原形,常省略为’d rather.

This instrict should be encouraged rather than (be) laughed at. be动词

I’d rather walk than ride a bike.

2.作准并列连词,相等于and not,意义为:是…,而不是…:可以+doing 或 to do.例如:
1)He was engaged in writing “rather than” reading the newspaper.他正忙着写东西,而不是 在读报纸.”rather than+ doing”
2)He is to be pitied rather than to be disliked.他应该得到怜悯而不是厌恶.”rather than+ to do”
所以意义表“宁愿”+do sth; 表“是…,而不是…:”++doing 或 to do.

注意:rather than 后接不定式时,不定式可以带to,也可以不带to, 如:

I decided to write rather than (to) telephone. 我决定写信而不打电话。

但rather than位于句首时,则只能接不带to 的不定式

如:Rather than allow the vegetables to go bad, he sold them at half price. 他唯恐蔬菜烂掉,把它们以半价卖掉了。

3)no… but rather… 不是……而是…… We don’t discuss such problems, but rather deal with them.

4)You rather than I are going to go camping. 是你而不是我要去要野营。
注意:rather than 连接两个名词或代词作主语时,谓语动词应与rather than 前面的名词或代词在人称和数上保持一致。

5)连接两个分句
We should help him rather than he should help us. 是我们应该帮助他而不是他应该帮助我们。

6)连接两个动词,表示可观事实,而不是主观愿望宁愿怎么样。
He ran rather than walked. 他是跑来的,而不是走来的。
注意:这里rather than 后用了walked,而没有用walk,表示客观事实,而不是主观愿望。如果换成walk,则作“宁愿……而不愿 ……”解。

3. would rather (sooner) 后跟表示虚拟语气的宾语从句,谓语动词为过去式,表示对过去或者将来的虚拟。

Kids would rather play than study.

I would rather (that) you told me the truth. (接宾语从句) 我宁愿你告诉我真相。

不定式to在什么情况下可以省略

1. 当and或or连接两个并列不定式时,第二个to常省。 摘录自:https://www.hjenglish.com/new/p1042599/

I plan to call him and discuss this question.

我计划给他打电话,讨论一下这个问题。

My friend in China asked me to telephone or write to her in my free time.

我中国的朋友让我有空给她打电话或写信。

2. 当两个并列to有对比意义,第二个to不能省。

I haven’t decided to stay at home or to travel to Beijing this holiday.

我还没决定假期是待在家里还是去北京旅行。

To be, or not to be, that is the question.

生存还是毁灭,这是一个值得思考的问题。(《哈姆雷特》)

3. 当两个to之间无并列连词,to不可省。

I came here not to help you, but to fright you.

我来这不是为了帮你,而是为了吓唬你。

4. 当三个或以上带to不定式构成排比,所有to不可省。

Read not to contradict or confute; nor to believe and take for granted; not to find talk and discourse; but to weigh and consider.

读书时不可存心诘难作者,不可尽信书上所言,亦不可只为寻章摘句,而应推敲细思。(《论读书》)

因此,关于不定式,我们除了要分清带to不定式和不带to不定式,还要掌握带to不定式在哪些情况下要省略to这一符号,做到具体情况具体分析。

5. 介词短语to作为并列的宾语,因为比较长,保留to可能会使得句子结构更加清晰?

It applies equally to traditional historians who view history as only the external and internal criticism of sources, and to social science historians who …..

but后接的动词不定式to do的三种形式,何时能够省略to

关于这个问题,大致可分三种情况。

第一种情况是but之后的动词不定式一般不带to,如:

(1)He did nothing but complain. (连词but后省去了that he did)

(2)Under such circumstances he could not but fail. (but之前省去了do anything)

(3)I cannot help but be sorry. (but省去to是受了例(1)结构的影响所致)

(4)He could not choose but love her. (也是受了例(1)的结构的影响,这种说法现在已不多见)

第二种情况是but之后的动词不定式一般须带to,如:

I have no choice but to accept the fact. (but后省去了the choice)

There was no choice but to bear it and grin. (理由同上)

第三种情况是but后的动词不定式可带to亦可不带to,如:

There is nothing to do but (to) fight it out. (部分地受到了例(1)结构的影响)

There was clearly nothing left to do but (to) flop down on the shabby little couch and weep. (理由同上)

There remained nothing but (to) get into the water…(理由同上)

except与but后的不定式何时可省to?

有一读者问:有这样四个句子:

(1)He seldom goes back home except to ask for money from his parents.

(2)He did nothing there except watch TV for the whole night.

(3)I had no choice but to stay in bed.

(4)Last night I did nothing but prepare my lessons.

我搞不懂except和but之后何时接to何时不接to。

第一种情况:其前的谓语动词为do时(必须是实义动词do以及它的各种时态变形,而不是其他动词),可不用to,如例句(2)和(4)(用to也不为错)

第二种情况:其前的谓语动词不是do,则一般须用to,如例句(1)和(3)

第三种情况:其前为there is nothing to do,则可用可不用to,如例句(5):

(5)There is nothing to do but (to) fight it out.

as引导比较状语从句

as引导比较状语从句,其基本结构是as…as。前一个as是副词,后一个as是比较状语从句的连词。否定结构为not so much … as …。例1:Small as it is, the ant is as much a creature as are all other animals on the earth.
尽管蚂蚁很小,但是它同地球上的任何其他动物一样,也是一种动物。
例2:It was not so much the many blows he received as (连词) the lack of fighting spirit that led to his losing the game.
与其说是他受到了许多打击,还不如说是缺乏斗志使他输掉了比赛。

例3. You had as good/well go (do) there on foot as wait (do) for the bus, since the company is not far away.

并列原因状语

The behavioral sciences have been slow to change partly because the explanatory items often seem to be directly observed and partly because other kinds of explainations have been hard to find.

并列表语从句

What is essential is not that his policy works, but that the publick beliebe that it dose.

并列定语

This seems mostly effetively done by supporting a certain amount of research not related to immediate goals but of possible consequence in the future.

等等很多复合结构….

14. meet the need of,也有meet the needs of,应该是看后面指代的是一件事还是多件事

15. A equals B (equal是及物动词,后面不需加to) 等价于 A is equal to B (用作形容词)

16. In detail 是对的,但是可以说 the details of …

In detail

Is correct. Assuming that the context looks like this.

[After general description]

In detail, the algorithm will….

But you could always say..

Here, I describe the details of the algorithm.

17. becasue 和 because of

具体可参考:https://wenku.baidu.com/view/38c06463f011f18583d049649b6648d7c1c7089c.html

because可以用来引导原因状语从句 或者 表语从句

It is because you’re eating too much. 那是因为你吃得太多了.

汉语说“之所以……是因为……”,英语可以类似以下这样的句型(用that比用 because普通)。如:

The reason (why) I’m late is that [because] I missed the bus. (引导表语从句) 我迟到的原因是因为我没有赶上公共汽车。

传统语法认为这类句型不能用 because, 但在现代英语中用because 的情形已很普遍。

because有时可引导一个句子作主语,此时通常采用just because这样的形式,并且主句谓语动词通常(当然不是一定)为mean。

如:
Just because you speak English doesn’t mean you can teach it. 你会说英语并不意味着你能教英语。

because of 用于构成复合介词because of,其后可接名词、代词、 动名词、what 从句(但不能是that从句或没有引导词的从句)等。

如:

He is here because of you (that). 他为你(那事)而来这里。 可以接代词that,但是不能接that从句。

We said nothing about it, because of his wife’s being there. 因为他妻子在那儿,我们对此只字未提

He left the company because of what the boss said at the meeting. 他离开了这家公司,是因为老板在会上讲的话

because of通常用来引导状语,而不能用于引导表语(引导表语时可用 due to)但是,若主语是代词(不是名词),则它引出的短语也可用作表语。

误:His absence is because of the rain.
正:His absence is due to the rain. 他因雨未来。

主语是代词,可以引导表语,如:

It is because of hard work. 那是因为辛苦工作的原因。
It will be because of money. 那将都是因为钱的原因。

18. 容易混淆的可数和不可数名词,以及既可以可数又可以不可数

不可数的抽象名词用来表示可数的人或物——抽象名词具体化(名词的数和词义发生变化!!!)

例如:详情见: http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_53ca7b1b0102e0ac.html

1.Thought n.
1)[U] 思维;思考,考虑,深思; 没有复数形式。
• After serious thought, he decided to accept their terms.经认真考虑,他决定接受他们的条件。
• After much thought he decided not to buy the car.经过仔细考虑后他决定不买汽车了。

2) (常用在疑问、否定句中)意图,打算,倾向意图;目的:[U][(+of)]
• He had no thought of hurting her.他没想要伤害她。
• There was no thought of coming home early.没想到提早回了家

3) [C] 想法,见解,观念;念头 (+of/about/on)]为可数名词有复数形式
• Please write and let me have your thoughts on the matter.请写信让我知道你对此事的看法。
• She’s a quiet girl and doesn’t share her thoughts.她是个内向的女孩,不表露她的想法。
4) 关心,注意,留意;注意;关怀;悬念(常与of, to连用)[C] [U][(+for)]
• The nurse was full of thought for the sick men. 那护士非常关怀病人。
• Her husband didn’t give much thought to what she said.她的丈夫不在乎她说什么
With no thought for his own safety, the old man went off at a run to save the drowning boy.老汉毫不顾虑自己的安全,奔去救那溺水的男孩。
拓展辨析

Thinking n. [U] 没有复数形式。
1) thinking思想,思考,考虑
• I have to do some thinking before making a decision.我得先思考一下,然后才好作决定。
2)thinking [U] 意见,想法,观点;意见;见解;看法
• To my thinking, this is not a good idea.我认为这不是个好主意
• independent thinking 独立思考
• wishful thinking一厢情愿的想法
• in modern thinking按照现代的想法

2. attraction ([U])吸引,吸引力;

([C])有吸引力的人或事物。
1)The idea of traveling to the moon has little attraction for me.
到月球上旅行的想法对我没有什么吸引力。

2)The city’s bright lights, theatres, and movies are great attractions.城里明亮的灯、戏院、电影等有巨大的吸引力。
3) One of the main attractions of the job is the high salary. 这份工作最吸引人的是薪水高。

  1. comfort [U] 安慰,慰藉,宽恕;

    [C]令人感到安慰的人或事物

performance

做表现,表演来说是可数的,但是作为性能来说是不可数的

struture是否可数

1.结构;构造;组织[U][C]
We know a lot about the structure of genes now.
如今我们对基因的结构有了较多的了解。
2.构造体;建筑物[C]
We visited the museum, a steel and glass structure.
我们参观了博物馆,它是一座钢和玻璃的建筑物。

improvement:看指的是整体的进步(不可数),还是因为某一个变动带来的具体的某个进步(可数)。

1 [ uncountable ] the act of making sth better; the process of sth becoming better
2 [ countable ] a change in sth that makes it better; sth that is better than it was before
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 8th edition

technology 和 improvement 类似

Data 这个单词是 datum 的复数形式,

在学术写作中通常视其为一个可数名词的复数,因为这种观点承认了 datum 这个单词作为可数名词单数的存在,更加严谨,虽然在学术论文中我们并不用 datum 这个单词。所以 data 后面的 be 动词为 are 或者 were。

当然我们也可以在 data 前面加上量词,如 “a set of”,让读者更加明确。

例如:

While data for the annually averaged solar share are not available, it is reasonable to anticipate that this could approach ~17% with sufficient storage, which is a worthwhile target (Nathan et al., 2018).

学术写作中 work 一般为不可数名词使用,

但如果 work 表示作品或者具体成果可以在后面加 “s”,例如 published works,这种表达方式也是少有遇见的。

例如:

Much work has been conducted over the past decade on applying compressive sensing methods to medical X-ray CT as a way of reducing patient radiation exposure (Jones & Huthwaite, 2015).

Result

学术写作中 result 一般为可数名词。

例如:

Despite the promising results reported from these and similar studies, the mass production of graphene by CVD has predominantly focused on the electronic device industry (Papageorgiou et al., 2017).

Information

学术写作中 information 一般视为不可数名词。

例如:

If all information is known, then any price changes should be a “random walk,” preventing any prediction on future values (Cooper et al., 2017).

Evidence

学术写作中 evidence 一般视为不可数名词。

例如:

By these means, evidence is a weaker definition of truth than proof(Fossum et al., 2019)

Recent evidence indicates that NOXA can also act as an activator BH3 protein (Bhola & Letai, 2015)

Research

Research 这个单词既可以做可数名词,也可以做不可数名词,但是做不可数名词的情形更多。

例如:

Much research has examined the construction of nanoelectrodes and nanoelectrode assemblies, and although a number of ingenious strategies have been devised (Bhon, 2009).

当我们使用 “researches”,通常表示 “different or separate groups of research”,并且大家需要注意,从语言学的角度来说,”a research” 这种表述方式在语法上是错误的。

Development

Development 做可数名词和不可数名词的情况都有。

当表示某个领域或者事物的“缓慢发展与进步”,使得在原本基础上更加先进、有竞争力,这种情况下视为不可数名词。

例如:

Ag-based nanowires were particularly effective sensor elements owing to the development of chemically responsive interfacial boundaries (Bhon, 2009).

如果表示产生了新的发现、成果,制造了新的产品,这种情形视为可数名词。

例如:

Recent developments in medical imaging driven by both increasing computational power and the desire to reduce patient X-ray exposure have led to the development of a number of limited view CT methodologies (Jones & Huthwaite, 2015).

Environment

Enviroment 在学术论文中一般为可数名词,可以指自然界存在的环境,也可以指影响人或者事物发生发展结果的条件。

例如:

This is the major transport process relevant to many exposure environments and degradation mechanisms and so its reduction is the key to enhancing durability (Wong et al., 2015).

meet the need of,也有meet the needs of,应该是看后面指代的是一件事还是多件事

Principle 作原则、原理,(行为)规范/准则来说是可数的,作为操守,道义,为人之道来讲不可数

We must come back to first principles. (基本原则)

I live according to my principless. (行为规范)

It is a matter of principle with him to tell the truth. (操守)

water

作为物质名字,水是不可数的

two glasses of water 本身水没有加s,本质上是在数杯子的数量!

但是作为“水域”的意思就是可数的,比如two waters,international waters国际水域

pleasure

It is a pleasure. 这里的抽象名词 pleasure其实是指(某件)愉快的事情

19. 定语从句中先行词的位置

定语从句谓语动词要与先行词保存一致!

He likes movies that __are__(be) about scary monster

定语从句并不一定总是紧接着先行词的,可能被分隔

先行词通常与定语从句是“手拉手”在一起的,但也可能被分隔两处。被分隔的情况有三种,即按照英语的“尾重原则(principle of end weight),被定语、状语或谓语分隔。

常见的三种不是紧接着的情况见:http://www.01ue.com/—tutorial-show-g-1-i-3-po-32.html#

The mineral elements from the soil that are usable by the plant must be dissolved in the soil solution before they can be taken into the root. (被定语分隔)

Never leave that until tomorrow which you can do today. (被状语分隔)

Social science is that branch of intellectual enquiry which seeks to study humans and their endeavors in the same reasoned, orderly, systematic, and dispassioned manner that natural scientists used for the study of natural phenomena. (被谓语分隔)

20. consit of,表示由…组成,是动词短语,不是介词短语!

It can not handle person poses which consist of only one keypoint.

21. 形容词变副词规则,尤其是什么时候需要去e加ly

1. 在形容词词尾直接加-ly.如:real-really; helpful-helpfully; careful-carefully; hopeful-hopefully; slow-slowly; quick-quickly; quiet-quietly

  1. 以辅音字母加y结尾的形容词要变y为i,然后再加-ly.如:busy-busily; angry-angrily; easy-easily
  2. 某些以辅音字母加不发音的字母e结尾和以-ue结尾的形容词要先去掉e,然后再加-y或-ly.如:terrible-terribly; true-truly; gentle-gently. 这里说是某些情况则肯定有特例,如 recursive - recursively 就么有去e

22. 辨析容易混淆的单词和短语

each和every

https://zhuanlan.zhihu.com/p/143404460

表示两者之中用each; 表示三者以上用each和every都可用。every重共性,将所表述的对象看作是一个整体(大特征),each重个性,突出每个人的个性;在表示一个动作发生的频率时,我们一般只使用every而不用each,比如:every morning、every Saturday。

请各位同学判断下面这句话中的every用得对不对呢?

Every teacher teaches things differently. (×)

当然是不对的,因为这句话表达的是“每个老师的教学方法都不相同”,其中更注重的是个体间的不同,所以上句中应该使用each。

我们只能用each来表示“两个事物中的每一个”,如果使用every则会给别人造成此类事物在数量上“很多”的误解。所以我们说:

She wore an anklet on each ankle.
Each of my parents gave me a present.

因为每个人的“脚踝”和“父母”的数量都只有两个,所以我们并不能将上面两句话中的each简单替换为every。

I take the subway to work every morning.
The bus runs every 5 minutes.

在上面示例中,表示的是“我每天早上乘地铁上班”和“公交车每5分钟发一趟”,都是表示某个动作或行为的频率,所以使用的是every。

也可以说,在表示“时间”的词的前面我们一般只使用every。

clue和cue的区别

https://wikidiff.com/clue/cue

两个词都有线索的意思,前着指的是,法律及犯罪的线索,比如在犯罪现场发现的叫线索就叫clue,

而cue则指的是某某人给你的一种暗示(线索),可能是一种信号或动作,比如给你猜个谜语的时候会给些提示(打个动物啦,或给你打个手势啦)这就用cue

warp和wrap的区别

warp:弯曲,使变形; wrap:包装

extent和extend的区别

extent : 大小,程度,范围; extend: 延长,扩大,延期

widely和wildly注意不要写错

wildly: 野生地、疯狂地

widely: 广泛地 this approach is widely used.

result in 和 lead to 的区别:

lead to 表示造成某种情形或结果的逐步变化过程。如:
The storm led to serious floods. 暴雨造成了严重的洪水。
result in 表示意想不到的结果。如:
Smoking too much will result in sickness. 吸咽过量会导致疾病。

in three steps,用介词in而不是at

We perform the task in three steps.

need for,而不是need of

need作名词表示需要常于介词for 搭配, the need for money.

类似的后面用for还有以下

suffer与suffer from的区别

suffer 经受,使遭受(坏事,不愉快的事),其宾语一般是loss(损失), pain(疼痛), punishment(惩罚), defeat(失败), wrong, hardship, torture, grief, injustice, disappointment等。

I will not suffer such conduct. 我不能容忍这种行为。

They suffered huge losses in the financial crisis. 他们在经济危机时遭受了巨大损失。

suffer from 因……而痛苦

  1. suffer from+疾病名词(或者他人闲言碎语、劳累、记忆力减退等),表示患病、为……受苦。

She suffers from headache. 她患头痛病。

I’m suffering from a lack of time this week.我为这周时间不够用而苦。

2. suffer from+自然灾害
suffer from drought 遭受旱灾;suffer from floods 遭受水灾

vitrual 和 virtually

虚拟的,实质上的,事实上地,几乎而不是虚假的意思

Virtual means so nearly that any difference is unimportant 。

virtual “虚拟的” 的解释是特指电脑方面的. 比如说 virtual imagery (虚拟图像), virtual computing (模拟计算), virtual tour (虚拟游览), 而virtual 的另一个意思是 “基本上”, 类似于 almost.

Virtually all cooking was done over coal-fired ranges. 事实上所有的烹饪都是在烧煤的炉灶上完成的。

most 和 mostly

A. most作副词时,是much的最高级形式,常和多音节的形容词或副词连用,构成最高级,表示“最”。most还可以修饰动词表示“最”,其位置较为灵活,放动词前后均可。此外,若most修饰可数名词单数且带形容词的短语时,可用“a most…”结构,表示“非常”。

B. mostly 主要用来修饰be动词或介词短语等表示“大部分地”、“大多数地”、“主要地”

例句:

(1) It’s the most important question. 这是最重要的问题。

(2) I like winter most. 我最喜欢冬天。

(3) Mary is a most beautiful girl. 玛丽是个非常漂亮的女孩。

(4) The guests are mostly her friends. 客人大多数是她的朋友。

(5) I am mostly out on Sunday. 星期日我多半不在家。

(6) He uses his car mostly for going to work. 他的汽车主要是上班用。

(7) I am most grateful for your slefless donation. 十分感谢…..

wish,hope,may的用法区别

https://wenku.baidu.com/view/e45f79f3b0717fd5360cdcf1.html

may you + do原型

wish sb + 名词 或者 wish sb to do

hope that接从句(从句用陈述语气),但是用作短语固定形式是 hope sb to do

We hope to see you again. =We hope we can see you again.我希望再次见到你

例:Wish you success (名次). May you succeed (动词原型). Hope you will/can succeed.

the state of the art in 和 state-of-the-art

前者表示“…艺术/技艺的现状”, 后者意为“顶级的,尖端的”

up-to-date 和 up to date

其实这是连字符使用的规则,加上连字符构成形容词,后面需要跟被修饰的名词,若只是充当谓语后的成分则不加连字符。

[误] These figures are up-to-date.
理由:「up-to-date」并未在名词之前。
改正法:删除连字符,变成These figures are up to date.

First, … Second, …Third, …. 和 Firstly, … Secondly, …Thirdly, …. and finally,….

前者用于列举说明各种并列的事实或者原因;后者表达的是“首先,····;其次,····;再次····;最后···”,有次序上的区别时应该用后者!

当然,其中secondly可以替换成besides, in addition, what’s more等,finally也可以替换成 at last, last but not least.

demand of 和 demand for, 前者是动词性的,后面接受体名词,而后者是名词性的

(1)demand of 要求/期待…

The court will be adjourned for an hour according to the demand of the defense.
根据被告及其辩护律师的要求,法庭将休庭一小时。

The factory is in great demand of steel to keep up production.
那个工厂需要大量钢铁以维持生产。

The main demand of the Indians is for the return of one-and-a-half-million acres of forest to their communities.

印第安人的主要要求是将150万英亩的森林归还给他们族群。

(2)demadn for对 … 的要求; 对 … 的需求

A fall in demand for oil tankers has put jobs in jeopardy.

油轮需求量的下降使很多工作职位受到威胁。

These developments have created a great demand for home computers.
这些发展促使家用电脑的需求量增大。

Demand for oil has nosedived.
对汽油的需求已骤减。

relieve和alleviate 有什么区别

1. Alleviate 指短暂的减轻压抑而没有解决其根源:“No arguments shall be wanting on my part that can alleviate so severe a misfortune” “对我来说要减轻如此严重的不幸,不需要任何争论”.
2. Relieve 指缓解或使造成不快或压抑的某事变得可以忍受:“that misery which he strives in vain to relieve” “他徒劳地奋力去减轻苦难” “The counselor relieved her fears” “顾问消除了她的恐惧”
3.Allay意味着至少是暂时从造成负担或痛苦的事物中解脱出来:“This music crept by me upon the waters,/Allaying both their fury and my passion/With its sweet air”.“在水面音乐爬上我的心头/平息了他们的愤怒和我的热情/用它甜美的声音”.

based on 与 on the basis of用法不同

原文

based on不能替换according to,而 on the basis of能替换according to。

词组 based on 和 on the basis of 经常被替换使用,然而,这是不恰当的。因为based on 是分词,可被用来修饰名词、代名词和名词词组;而需修饰动词时,只能用介词词组on the basis of 。Based on 具有动词或形容词的功用,做形容词时,可修饰前置的名词或代名词,例如:
˙ This conclusion is based on four years of experience. (base on这里当动词用)
˙ Conclusions based on experience may still require testing. (based on这里修饰最邻近的名词)

若要修饰动词,请使用词组on the basis of。
例句1:病句:Based on the first four years of results, we discarded the original hypothesis. (这里逻辑错误,based on修饰主句中的主语we)
修正句:On the basis of our results, we discarded the original hypothesis.

例句2:病句:The administration sent a document on the basis of your suggestion.
修正句:The administration sent a document based on your suggestion.

在例句2的修正句中,based on 被用来修饰前置名词 document,显示文件内容是基于your suggestion。而在原句中,on the basis of修饰动词send,表示根据your suggestion,文件已寄出。简单来说,当要表达according to(根据)的意思时,可以使用on the basis of,而当表达has a foundation in/has resulted from(基于/由于)的意思时,则应使用 based on。

approach, method, algorithm, way, means的区别

An approach is a way of dealing with something or somebody. A method is the process used or the steps taken to deal with an issue or a person.

approach是学习或研究问题的方法,指解决某个具体问题所需要的各种步骤的统称,它一定是针对某个具体问题的解决方法。method指做某件工作的固定的套路,表示颇为复杂的一套方法,而且强调以效率和准确性为目的,是一种固定而且无需变化的方法。在计算机科学中,method是一类algorithm的总称。

  • APPROACH - somebody’s way of solving the issue/problem

  • METHOD — a well established procedures of solving issue/problem

  • TECHNIQUE—one of ways of solving issue/problem within the same method.

摘录自:https://kknews.cc/education/425g4j3.html

“Way” 泛指 “一个人的行事方法、思维方式,以及事物的外形样式”,它强调在很多选择、可能性中的一个。举一个例子,每个人学英语的方式都不大相同,而下面这句话中的说话人认为: “学习英语最好的方式是和母语人士对话。”

e.g. I think the best way to learn English is through talking to native speakers.

The way she talks is very polite. 这里Way强调一个人的行为方式。句子的意思是: “她说话的方式很有礼貌。”

“Method” 指 既定的、系统化的步骤、程序。比如:研究方法 research method;cooking method 烹饪步骤;或者教学方法 teaching method 等等。

e.g. According to Confucius, the best teaching method is to make sure instructions are suitable for the student’s abilities.

e.g. What method will you employ? That depends on your approach.

“Means” 和刚刚讲过的两个单词 “way” 和 “method” 不同的是,“means” 强调 “为了达到特定的目标而使用的工具、方式或者手段”。

The company has survived the recession by means of layoffs. 这家公司通过裁员成功地躲避了这次经济衰退所带来的影响。

Which is your favourite means of transport? Trains, buses or aeroplanes? 你最喜欢的交通方式是哪一种

ability、capability 和 capacity 的区别

Ability、capability 和 capacity 就许多用法而言是近义词。这三个词常用于描述一个人完成某个动作的能力。例如,一个人可能拥有一周读两本的 ability、capability 或 capacity。但是 capacity——其与其它动词共有的含义通过比喻得到了进一步扩展——还有其它动词没有的特殊用法。Capacity 往往与体积、容量和数量相关。例如,“The vehicle’s fuel capacity is 120 gallons,”,在这句话中,capacity 指对车辆机油装载能力的一种度量,不能与剩下的两个词互换使用。“The vehicle’s fuel ability”听起来不正确。

ability 和 capacity 之间的另一个常见不同点在于,对于人类和动物而言,capacities 是天生的,而 abilities 是学到的。例如,一个孩子可能天生就具有成为厨师的 capacity,但是做菜的 ability 必须通过学习获得。

同时,Capability 通常表示 ability 的极限。例如,你说你有写好文章的 ability,我可能会问你有没有在明天之前写出10页文章的 capability。此外,capabilities 往往是一种非此即彼的命题,而ability 往往是程度上的问题。例如,我可能会说,我虽然有写作的 ability,但是我没有写小说的 capability。不过,跟这些词的其它区别一样,这些不同比较模糊,除了一般固定的用法之外,这些词都是可以互换使用的。

ignore,neglect和overlook的区别

ignore v.忽视,不理睬,指有意识地拒绝。

She saw him coming but she ignored him.她看见他走过来,但是装作没看见。

neglect v.忽视,忽略,疏忽,指无意识地忽视或忘记。

He neglected to make repairs in his house.他忘记了修理房子。

overlook v.忽略,疏漏,指有意识地遗漏,也指无意识地忽略。

The mother overlooked her little boy’s bad behavior.那位母亲忽视了她的小儿子的不良行为

inter和intra的区别

intra-表示“在内,内部”

intraparty党内的抄(intra+party党)
intracollegiate大学内的(intra+collegiate大学的,学院的)
intrapersonal个人内心的(intra+personal个人的)
intranational国内的(intra+national国家的)

inter-表示“在…之间,相互”

international国际的(inter+national国家的)
interpose置于,介入(inter+pose放→放在二者之间)
intersect横断(inter+sect切割 →在中间切→zhidao横断)
intervene干涉(inter+vene走→走在二者之间→干涉)
interaction相互影响(inter+action行动→相互行动→影响)
interchangeable可互换的(inter+changeable可改变的)
interlude(活动间的)休息(inter+lude玩→在中间玩→活动间休息)
interrelate相互关连(inter+relate关连)

axiom,principle、theorem、law、rule 在数学、物理中的含义如何区分?

参考1

参考2

参考3

数学中的公理axiom,与物理中的定律 principle同属客观规律,但无法用实验证明只能被假定成立只能在一定范围内归纳原理和公理一样,无法被证明,也因此科学的发展出现大的突破总是以公理/原理被证伪的形式。但注意,数学上没有Principle,只有Axiom。数学和物理在最开始的起点处,一个称之为”原理”一个称之为”公理”的东西,本质上似乎是相同的,只不过”原理”往往要比公理更复杂,原理(Principle)更注重推导的结果是否丰富,而公理(Axiom)仅仅为逻辑演绎提供起点。

定理(Theorem)则是通过逻辑演绎,由原理或者公理推导出来的用途比较广的,重要性很强的推论,一般的推论称为Corollary,其实和定理本身属性相同,只是重要性(应用范围)差很多,一般只用于作为重要定理的证明中间过程存在着。物理里凡是叫做 theorem 的东西,总是跟数学拖不了干系。不来点数学推导,似乎就很难被称作 theorem。

注意:命名这事儿,还是要结合当时的时代背景,在当时看来无解的principle或者实验规律law,可能经过物理学和数学地进一步的发展,找到更加底层的principle或者law,进而被推演出啦,升级为theorem,但是很多时候名称依然沿用而被保留了下来。

定律(Law)主要是一开始一些直接从经验中总结出来的东西,一开始的角色其实和原理差不多,只不过形式更为具象,原理更为抽象。同时作为原理一般能够推导出多条定律,比如最小作用量原理,既可以给出牛顿定律,也可以给出相对论下的运动方程,还可以给出麦克斯韦方程组。相对来说,如果完全是靠经验总结而非逻辑归纳得到的命题,应该就只能叫做定律了

规则(Rule)则是一些用于计算或者简化计算的常规套路,它们本身并没有多少意义,只是在漫长的理论推导过程中由于经常被用到,人们更愿意记住它们而不是每次重复之前做过的同样的步骤,相当于围棋中的”定式”。

deficiency和defect的区别

在表示人的缺点,设计制造方面的“缺点、缺陷”,两者应当没有区别。
正如,中文的“缺点” 与”缺陷“ 有什么区别呢?
但 defect = deficiency = fault = shortcoming 缺点、缺陷。
如果表示 “缺少、不足、缺乏” = shortfall/ shortage/ lack 时,只可用 deficiency.

表示连续的单词的区别(consistent,consecutive,continuous,contiguous,adjacent,seccessive等)

参考这里:https://www.xindejob.com/article/read?id=32

consecutive是指空间(位置/排列)上的连续贯通,它强调的是,与之相对的是间断、断裂。one after another in order,强调有秩序的一个接着一个。

e.g. Unemployment rates have fallen for the fifth consecutive month. 失业率已经连续五个月不断下降。

continuous是指时间/过程上继续承接,强调中间的内容或实体不发生中断或缺失(但是在时间/过程上可以暂时中止/停顿,后续承接着往下发展)

e.g. There has been continuous rainfall in Northern England for 10 days.

注意contiguous是指地域上的相连、相邻、交界,是毗邻的意思。比如广西广东在地理上没有任何空隙的相邻。adjacent也是毗邻的,不要求拼凑性地将边界进行贴合,可以有空隙。

其他对比解释请参考链接文章。

rather than和other than

http://www.kewo.com/article/13557

 rather than
  ①表示“是…而不是…;代替”时,侧重于指客观上的差别。如:

  I call her hair chestnut rather than brown.

  我宁愿说她的头发是栗色的,而不愿说她的头发是棕色的。(rather than前后可接形容词)

  ②表示“与其…倒不如(宁可)…”时,侧重句子主语或说话人主观上的选择。如:

  The person who should be praised is you rather than me.(rather than前后可接代词)

  该受到表扬的人是你,而不是我。

other than

  ①表示否定意义,即“不同于,非”,相当于different from。如:

  The truth is quite other than what you think.

  事实真相和你们想的完全不一样。(other than后可接从句)

  ②表示排除意义,即“除了”,相当于except(常用于否定结构中)。如:

  1.There’s nobody here other than me.

  除了我这里没别人。(other than后可接代词)

  2.You can’t get there other than by swimming.

  你只能靠游泳游到那边去。(other than后可接介词短语)

  ③还有“除…以外,还…”的意思,相当于besides。如:

  English is now spoken in many countries other than England.

  除了英国外,其他许多国家都讲英语。(other than后可接名词)

​ 3.no (加名词) other than 正是,恰恰是

  He is no other than the professional talent we are looking for. 他正是我们要物色的专业人才。

rest和remaining的区别

Rest of the things is used when we do not know the quantity of things. On the other hand, Remaining is used when the quantity of things is known to us

Lets assume that in case one I do not know how many pages a book contain.

1) I’ve read twenty pages today, I’ll read the rest of the pagestomorrow.

And in case two we know that a book contains fifty pages.

2) I’ve read twenty pages today, I’ll read the remaining thirty pages tomorrow.

Above was just an example, you can substitute the pages with whatever you wish.

continually 和 continuously 的区别

continually 强调频繁地,是有间段的继续
continuously 强调连续地,是一直继续地意思.

23. 英文标题大小写

不定冠词a 在标题中是小写

更加具体的标题大小写规则如下: 知乎回答

Capitalize the first and the last words of the title and all other words (including words following hyphens in compound words) except articles, coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but, nor, for), short prepositions, and the toinfinitives:
e.g.
My First Visit to the Palace Museum

The People Without a Country

Rules to Abide By (By是最后一个单词,所以大写

Dickens and David Copperfield

What Can the Artist Do in the World of Today?

What Reform Means to China

The Myth of a “Negro Literature”

The English-Speaking People in Quebec (符合词连字符之后的单词开头也要大写,除了介词等那些例外)

The Top-down and Bottom-up Approaches (这里的复合连词后是介词吗?)
Excerpt From: A Handbook of Writing

“Begin the first word and all other important words in the title with a capital letter. The articles, prepositions, and conjunctions are usually unimportant.”
Excerpt From: The Writing of English

24. on the contrary, by contrast 或 in contrast (to/with), on the other hand的区别

在写文章的时候,如果你已经预设了立场,要表达与之前的说法相反或强调之前的说法是错误的,可以用 on the contrary。
若要做客观的观点对比,不加入个人对错想法,只是单纯比较时就用 by contrast 或 in contrast (to/with)。
而 on the other hand 则是说明一件事情的两面,或是不同的看法,虽有部分人士认为此片语不够正式,但在学术语料库出现的频率可是这三个里面最高的。

25. because ,for ,as ,since表示“因为”时的区别

摘录自

because, as, for, since这几个词都是表示“原因”的连词,语气由强至弱依次为:because→since→as→for;其中because, since, as均为从属连词,引导原因状语从句;而for 是并列连词,引导并列句。

1. because表示直接原因,它所指的原因通常是听话人所不知道的,其语气最强。常用来回答why的提问,一般放于主句之后,也可以单独存在。例如:

(1)I stayed at home because it rained. 因为下雨我呆在家里。

(2)Because Lingling was ill, she didn”t come to school. 玲玲因病,没有上学。

(3)Why is she absent? 她为什么缺席?

—Because she is sick. 因为她病了。

此外,在强调句型中,只能用because。例如:

(4)It was because I missed the early bus that I was late for school. 我上学迟到是因为我没有赶上早班汽车。

2. since侧重主句,从句表示显然的或已为人所知的理由,常译为“因为”、“既然”,语气比because稍弱,通常置于句首,表示一种含有勉强语气的原因。例如:

(1)Since he asks you, you”ll tell him why. 他既然问你,那就告诉他为什么吧。

(2)Since everyone is here, let”s start. 既然大家都到齐了,我们就出发吧!

(3)Since I understood very little Japanese, I couldn”t follow the conversation. 我日语懂得不多,因而听不懂对话。

3. as是常用词,它表示的“原因”是双方已知的事实或显而易见的原因,或者理由不是很重要,含义与since相同,但语气更弱,没有since正式,常译为“由于,鉴于”。从句说明原因,主句说明结果,主从并重。例如:

(1)We all like her as she is kind. 我们都喜欢她,因为她善良。

(2)As I had a cold, I was absent from school. 因为我感冒了,所以没去上课。

(3)As Xiaowang was not ready, we went without him. 由于小王没有准备好,我们只好不带他去了。

4. for用作连词时,与because相似,但它所表示的原因往往提供上文未交待过的情况。for不表示直接原因,表明附加或推断的理由,因此for被看作等立连词,它所引导的分句只能放在句子后部(或单独成为一个句子),并且前后两个分句间的逻辑关系不一定是因果关系,其间用逗号隔开,且for不可置于句首,for的这一用法常用在书面语中,较正式。例如:

(1)The days are short, for it is now December. 白天短了,因为现在已是十二月份。

(2)It must have rained, for the ground is wet. (从“地面潮湿”作出“下过雨”的推测,但地湿并不一定是下雨所致, for不可以换为because。)

(3)The ground is wet because it has rained. (“下雨”是“地上潮湿”的直接原因。)

前后两个分句间有一定的因果关系时(有时很难区分是直接原因,还是推测性原因),for与because可以互换使用。例如:

(4)I could not go, for / because I was ill. 我没能去,是因为我病了。

(5)He felt no fear, for / because he was a brave boy. 他没有害怕,因为他是个勇敢的男孩

26.0. 限定性定语从句和非限定性定语从句的区别 (** 易错!)

比较下面的两个句子:

I have a sister who is a doctor. 我有一个医生的姐姐。(姐姐不止一个,必须用限定性的定语从句锁定范围)

I have a sister, who is a doctor. 我有一个姐姐,她是当医生的。(只有一个姐姐,只是补充说明)

先行词不同

限定性定语从句的先行词只能是名词或代词,而非限定性定语从句的先行词则可以是名词或代词,也可以是短语或句子;另外,当先行词为专有名词或其他具有独一无二性的普通名词时,通常要用非限制性定语从句,而不用限制性定语从句。如:

Peter drove too fast, which was dangerous. 彼得开车很快,这是很危险的。(which指drive too fast)

He changed his mind, which made me very angry. 他改变了主意,这使我很生气。(which指整个主句)

Mr. Smith, who is our boss, will leave for Japan next week. 我们的老板史密斯先生下周要去日本。(先行词为专有名词,要用非限制性定语从句修饰)

Her father, who has a lot of money, wishes her to study abroad. 她父亲很有钱,希望她出国学习。(先行词为表独一无二意义的普通名词,要用非限制性定语从句修饰)

关系词不同

关系词that和why可用于限制性定语从句中,通常不用于非限制性定语从句;另外,在限制性定语从句中,关系代词有时可以省略,而在非限制性定语从句中关系词一律不省略。

我们可以通过省略定语从句中的引导词和be动词,来使整个句子更加精简和地道,但这样改写应该就不能算作定语从句了

例如:

I caught the boy who was in front of me.(我抓住了我前面的那个男孩。)

省略引导词(who)和be动词(was)后,可以得到:I caught the boy in front of me.
句子的语义与原句相比没有变化,但名词the boy变为由介词短语“in front of me”修饰,复杂句变成了简单句

再举一个例子:

The store, which was located in the town, sold fish and meat.(那个商店,位于城镇内,售卖鱼和肉。)

从句省略后可以得到:The store, located in the town, sold fish and meat.

26. 定语从句中的关系代词

that 的用法,以及什么情况下只能用that不能用which

https://zhuanlan.zhihu.com/p/30427878

分析这个问题前,我们需要先了解一下thatwhich之间的不同:

that的词义是“那个”,暗指单个对象。

which的词义是“那一个”,暗指多个对象中的一个。

有一个通用的规则:如果有“独一无二”的意思用that,否则就用which,who等有从多个中选一个的意思。

学到这里,你是否能够解释下面两个例子中的引导词为什么只能用that,而不能用which了呢?

What was the first that came to your mind?

He is the only person that I have ever met.

没错。就是因为“the only person”、“the first”所表示的事物只有一个或是对这个事物的指向已经非常明显了,并没有“从多个中选一个”的暗示在里面,所以引导词只能用that

另一个详解资源说明定语从句语法

摘录自

1)不用that的情况
a) 在引导非限定性定语从句时。
(错) The tree, that is four hundred years old, is very famous here.
b) 介词后不能用。
We depend on the land from which we get our food.
We depend on the land that/which we get our food from.

2) 只能用that作为定语从句的关系代词的情况
a) 在there be 句型中,只用that,不用which。
b) 在不定代词,如:anything, nothing, the one, all, much, few, any, little等这些不定代词作先行词时,只用that,不用which。
c) 先行词有the only, the very修饰时,只用that。
d) 先行词为序数词、数词、形容词最高级时,只用that。.
e) 先行词既有人,又有物时。
举例:
All that is needed is a supply of oil.
所需的只是供油问题。
Finally, the thief handed everything that he had stolen to the police.
那贼最终把偷的全部东西交给了警察。

as引导定语从句

as引导定语从句时,既可以引导限定性定语从句,又可以引导非限定性定语从句。区分as引导定语从句和其它从句的关键特征是:as引导定语从句时在从句中做成分,通常做主语或宾语。

1、as引导限定性定语从句

如从句所修饰的名词前有such、the same、as出现,后面的定语从句将由as引导,形成such…as,the same…as,as…as这样的固定结构,译为“和……一样”。
例1:I never heard such stories as he told. 我从未听过他所讲的那样的故事。

例2:He’ll repeat such questions as are discussed in the book. 他将重复书中讨论过的问题。

例3:They made the same mistake as others would have made on such an occasion.
他们犯了和其他人在这种场合下会犯的同样错误。

2、as引导非限定性定语从句

as引导非限定性定语从句,往往指代一整句话,通常表示“正如”的意思。as引导的非限制性定语从句位置相对比较灵活,可以位于先行词之前、之后或中间。
例:As is known to everybody, the moon travels round the earth. 众所周知,月亮绕着地球转。

but,as,than作关系代词引导定语从句!

摘录自:

https://www.hjenglish.com/new/p981200/

https://wenku.baidu.com/view/14850f6727d3240c8447eff6.html

As、but和than通常都是以介词、连词等身份被大家所熟知,而它们居然可以摇身一变成为关系代词,在定语从句中做主语和宾语。

but可被看作关系代词,引导定语从句,在句中作主语,在意义上相当于 who not或that not,即用在否定词或具有否定意义的词后,构成双重否定。

There is no mother but loves her own children.(=There is no mother that/who does not love her own children.)没有不爱自己孩子的母亲。

He is as brave a man as ever lived. 他是世界上最勇敢的人。(as作主语)

Don’t read such books as are not worth reading.不要读那些不值得读的书。(as作主语)

Don’t read such poems as you can’t understnad. 不要看你(们)看不懂的诗词。 (as作宾语)

He is not such a man as he used to be. 他已经不是过去的那个样子了。 (as作表语)

than既可指人,也可指物,可作关系代词来引导定语从句。than前通常有表比较的词。

例如:Fewer friends than we had expected came to our evening party.来参加晚会的朋友比我们预料的还要少。

He got more money than was wanted.他得到了更多的钱。

This enable the delivery of more information with greater speed to more locations than has ever been possible.

27. 同位语和定语从句的区别

同位语可分为限制性同位语非限制性同位语原文

Tom’s uncle Jim is a teacher. Tom的叔叔Jim是老师**。此处Jim没有用逗号隔开,为uncle的限定性同位语,说明Tom的uncle不只一个。

Tom’s uncle ,Jim ,is a teacher. Tom的叔叔,Jim,是老师。

此处Jim用逗号隔开,为uncle的非限定性同位语,说明Tom的uncle只有一个

同位语不会影响被说明对象的数量

The policemen each have a gun. 每个警察都有一把枪。

The policemen each has a gun. (错误)

此外还有其他词类可以充当同位语,比如介词短语作同位语Put it here, on the table.把它放这,这个桌子上。

摘录自:https://wenku.baidu.com/view/71317919227916888486d7ed.html

同位语从句和定语从句从表面来看十分相似,但实质上是截然不同的两种从句:

(1)同位语从句所修饰的词是有限的一些抽象名词,而定语从句就没有这种限制。

同位语(即 句子作为同位语)从句经常用于下列有限的几个词后: hope(希望),idea(想法), news(消息), order(命令), fact(事实), question(问题),reason(理由),belief(相信),doubt(怀疑),evidence(根据),conclusion(结论),truth(真理),result(结果)等。

例如:The idea that I can be a millionaire is impossible. 我会成为百万富翁这个想法是不可能的。

(2)句法功能不同。

同位语从句)同它所修饰的名词在内容上是等同关系,在句中的语法作用处于同等地位。而定语从句说明前一名词的性质、特征,对先行词进行修饰、限制,是先行词不可缺少的定语。

(3)引导词that在同位语从句中不作句子成分;而在定语从句中必作句子成分,是从句所修饰的词的替代词。

试比较:
The fact that the Chinese people invented the compass is known to all.中国人发明指南针这个事实是众所周知的。(同位语从句)
The fact that we talked about is very important.我们谈论的这个事实很重要。(定语从句)

如何区别同位语从句和定语从句

同位语从句和定语从句在形式上基本相同,都是跟在名词或代词之后,且又常由that引导。但它们的句法功能却是不同的,我们可以从三个方面来加以区别,具体说明见上述链接文章

28. 一些长句中短语或者词组的语序问题

(1)whether or not

例句:we just wish to determine whether or not the words you hear are understandable.

whether后所接的从句末尾可以加or not, 也可以不加

We use the world, church to refer to all religious insititutions, whetehr they are Christrian, Islanminc, Buddhis, and so on.

whether

conj (连词). 是否;不论

pron (代词). 两个中的哪一个

(2) 按照英语的“尾重原则(principle of end weight)”,结构复杂的从句或成分置于其他成分后面

This is an abstract concept whcih makes (谓语) possible (宾补) immense amounts of concrete and research and understanding (宾语太长了放后面).

Thos force to exercise their smiling muscles reacted more enthusiastically to funny cartoons than did those whose mouth are contracted in a frown, suggesting that …. (than从句中的主语太长,做了倒装,did代替主句中的整个谓语,并且对比的主语没有歧义,所以此处也可以省略did)

29. 名词修饰名词(名词作定语)单复数形式

若后面被修饰的名词使用了复数,则注意前面的修饰名词一般用单数,特殊情况用复数!!

如:This kindergarten only employs women (woman的复数) teachers.

转载自:http://ask.yygrammar.com/app_q-25901.html

名词作定语时,一般用单数形式,但在个别情况下也有用复数的。

goods train货车,sports meeting运动会,machines hall展览机器, games console游戏机, doctors certificate of advice 医生证明, operations manager 运营经理

不过,有少数的复合名词,前一个词单、复数的形式都有,而各有不同的指涉,比方说:number game 是给小朋友玩的”数字游戏”,而numbers game 指的是”结果全靠机率的一件事”、time table 是”时间表”,而times table 是”九九乘法表”(这裡“times”其实是介词:“four times three is twelve”)、art education 是”美术教育”,arts education 是”(各种)艺术教育”。不确定时就用单数,通常不会错。

注意:被修饰的名词变复数时,一般情况下,作定语用的名词不需要变为复数形式,

但由man或woman作定语修饰的名词变成复数时,两部分皆要变为复数形式。

man doctor—men doctors 男医生 woman singer—women singers 女歌手

有的作定语用的名词有与之相应的同根形容词。

一般情况下,名词作定语侧重说明被修饰的名词的内容或性质(内在);

同根形容词作定语则常常描写被修饰的名词的特征。

“gold watch”指手表含有金的性质;

而”golden watch”则表示手表是金色的特征,不一定含有金。

stone house 石头造的房子 stony heart 铁石般的心肠

peace conference 和平会议 peaceful construction 和平建设

名词作定语与名词所有格作定语有时是有区别的

一般来说,名词作定语通常说明被修饰的词的性质,而名词所有格作定语则强调对被修饰的词的所有(权)关系或表示逻辑上的谓语关系。

在“the Party members(党员)”中,名词定语表示members的性质;

在“the Party’s calls(党的号召)”中,Party具有动作发出者的作用,calls虽然是 名词,却具有动作的含义 .

a student teacher 实习教师

a student’s teacher 一位学生的老师

名词所有格表示共有的或者各自的所属用法不一样

Tom and Jerry’s room. Tom和Jerry共有的房间。如果是共有的,只需要在最后一个人后面加所有格’s

Tom’s and Jerry’s rooms. Tom和Jerry各自的房间。不是共有的就需要每个人后面加所有格’s

也可以使用of构成名词所有格,只不过这时候其实更是在表示修饰、性质,而不是所属

摘录自 英语兔🐰

the paper’s qualit <——> the quality of the paper

today’s news <——> the news of today

a meter’s length <——> the length of a meter

比较下面两个句子含义的区别:a photo of Michael’s (Michael所拥有的照片中的一张);a photo of Michael (一张Michaeal出镜在其中的照片)

30. 倒装

摘录自:https://wenku.baidu.com/view/fd9ac363a88271fe910ef12d2af90242a895abcd.html

特别注意部分倒装,是前一个从句主谓倒装还是后一个从句主谓倒装。

部分倒装:仅仅把助动词或情态动词提前;如 Hardly did I know that. 助动词didi提前,而谓语动词know不变位置。

完全倒装:把谓语动词全部提前。如 Out rushed his mother. 直接谓语动词 rushed 提前

备份图片地址

在这里补充知识点

介词短语是不能做主语的。有时介词短语在前看似做主语,其实可能是完全倒装。

例如:

In the next photo are my grandparents.

这个句子是完全倒装。完全倒装就是句子的主语和谓语的位置互换。当表示地点的副词或介词短语置于句首,而且句子的主语为名词时,句子用完全倒装。
你的这句话原本是My grandparents are in the next photo.而in the next photo置前,且主语my grandparents 是名词,用了完全倒装。
如the boy stood under the tree变成 under the tree stood the boy.
再如The man went out.相当于Out went the man. out 是表地点的副词。
但是如果是 He went out 只能变成 out he went. 因为句子主语是代词,就没有倒装

虚拟条件句的省略倒装
虚拟条件句的从句部分含有were, should, 或had时, 可省略if,再把were, should或had 移到从句的句首,实行倒装

例如:

Were they here now, they could help us. =If they were here now, they could help us. 他们现在在的话,就会帮助我们了。

Had you come earlier, you would have met him. =If you had come earlier, you would have met him. 你来得早一点,就碰到他了。

Should it rain, the crops would be saved. = Were it to rain,the crops would be saved.假如下雨,庄稼就有救了。
注意:在虚拟语气的从句中,动词’be’的过去时态一律用”were”,不用was,

31. 分词作状语

摘录自:https://wenku.baidu.com/view/1e88a91052d380eb62946de0.html

现在分词与过去分词作状语的区别。
现在分词做状语与过去分词做状语的最主要区别在于两者与所修饰的主语的主动与被动关系的区别

分词作状语(关键找逻辑主语)

a)放在句首的分词往往看作 时间状语 以及 原因状语

1. Looking (when I looked) at the picture, I couldn’t help missing my middle school days. (时间状语)

2.Seriously injured, Allen was rushed to the hospital. (原因状语)
=As he was seriously injured, Allen was rushed to the hospital.

The wolf (独立主格,是invite发出者,所以用主动ing) inviting him, the rabbit decided to go to the party.

With the work finished, the rabbit went home.

b)放在句中或句末常常看作为伴随状态(并列句)

The girl was left alone in the room,weeping(crying )bitterly.

she watched all the gifts , greatly amazed.(=she watched all the gifts, and was greatly amazed.)

伴随状语出现的条件是由一个主语发出两个动作或同一个生语处于两种状态,或同一个主语发出一个动作时又伴随有某一种状态。伴随状语的逻辑主语一般情况下必须是全句的生语,伴随状语与谓语动词所表示的动作或状态是同时发生的。一般而已,伴随状语中的动词具有“延续性”。而结果状语中的动词一般是非延续性的。
The dog entered the room, following his master(这条狗跟着主人进了屋)。
The master entered the room,followed by his dog(主人进了屋,后面跟着他的狗)。视为“伴随状语”或“方式状语”都可以。

c) 但注意特殊:Generally/frankly speaking… / taken as a whole(总的来讲)不考虑逻辑主语,看作为独立成分。

d) 结果状语

以下三句中的分词短语应看作“结果状语”,而不是“伴随状语”:
The fire lasted nearly two days, leaving nothing valuable.
大火持续了将近两天,几乎没剩下什么值钱的东西。
My grandpa fell off the bike, breaking his right arm and leg.
我爷爷从自行车上掉下来,摔断了右胳膊和右腿。
It has rained for over ten days, causing the river to rise.
下了十多天雨,致使河水上涨。

31. 情态动词

shall 和 will 的区别 《考研英语必背500句》P170,第150句

https://wenku.baidu.com/view/558d13b7551810a6f52486e5.html

will 和 would 的区别

https://zhidao.baidu.com/question/747096438925750852.html

32. however, nevertheless, how ever 的区别

however 和 nevertheless

http://m.gaosan.com/gaokao/253523.html

however 作连接副词用时, 是 然而 的意思 承上启下 要用逗号隔开
nevertheless 作连接副词用时, 是“然而”的意思 与however 用法一样
如 there was no news, nevertheless, she went on hoping .消息杳然 尽管如此 她继续盼望着.
区别在于 however 所指关系比较 松弛 , nevertheless所指关系比较 紧凑, nevertheless指尽管作出完全让步,也不会发生任何影响。

She was very tired, nevertheless she kept on working. 她虽然很疲倦,可仍在继续工作。

He’s stupid, but I like him nevertheless. 他是很笨,然而我喜欢他。

更简单的处理方式是:You can always replace “nevertheless” with “however,” but you cannot always replace “however” with “nevertheless.” however的使用场景比nevertheless更多。

详情见,很详细:https://wenku.baidu.com/view/155a13287375a417866f8f77.html

however 和 how ever

however是副词或者是连接副词,意为“不论如何,但是”,而how ever中的ever是起强调作用,意为“究竟怎样”

How ever did you manage to get the car started? 你究竟如何把车发动起来的?

33. There be + n + doing/to do/done 句型的辨析

there be +名词+ doing 或 there be + 名词+ done 及 there be +名词+ to do 这三个句型都是there be 句型,there be 当“有”讲,确是倒装句。句中的名词是主语,所以谓语动词be与其后的名词在人称和数上保持一致(即英语的主谓一致原则),而 doing,done 还有to do 在there be 句型中都是定语,修饰其前面的名词!
所以呀,there be 后不可能直接加doing , 只能是加了名词后,才可能根据语义需要加出doing,done或者to do 结构。

1、解释:There be + 主语 + to do …通常表示动作尚未发生…如:

There are a lot of flowers to be watered. 那里还有很多花没被浇水。

There was nobody to look after the child. 没有人照顾这孩子。

There was a large crowd to send him off. 有一大群人要来给他送行。

注:当其中的宾语与其后的不定式为被动关系时,可用主动表被动,也可用被动式:

如:There is much work to do. = There is much work to be done. 有许多工作要做。

There is much homework to do.= There is much homework to be done.有许多作业要做。

2、There be + 主语 + doing …通常表示动作正在发生:

There are many boys playing basketball. 那里有许多男孩正在打篮球。

There is a boy standing under the tree.大树下有个男孩。

34. 一些可以提升逼格的高级词汇

said: adj,上述的,用来替换mentioned above

e.g. Clicking on the “LaTeXiT” button on the bottom right will produce said formula in the viewer

concretely: adv,具体地,用来替换频繁使用to be specific

e.g. (More) Concretely, it also means that women are more likely to have

off-the-shelf: adj、adv,现成的,无需作重大修改地

e.g. It’s pretty clear that buying an off-the-shelf device is a lot cheaper than building a custom box.

很显然,买现成的设备要比构建定制机器便宜得多

cope with 应对、处理

RLOF develops an adaptive window size strategy to cope with the generalized aperture problem.

deficiency 缺乏、缺陷

most of these still have various deficiencies as regards (至于) their elicitation paradigms.

thus far 到目前为止 ; heretofore 迄今为止, 到目前为止

Thus far there has been no comprehensive survey.

Akin to 类似于

Akin to macro-expressions, micro-expressions also constitute a kind of private facial information.

to name only a few 举几个例子

Conflict Theory, Independence Theory, Unity Theory and Dialogue Theory, to name only a few, but they all have this or that deficiency or defect (不足或缺陷,参考deficiency和defect的区别 ).

intertwine vt, vi 缠绕、缠绕、交织在一起

Facial expressions in the real world are intertwined with various factors, such as subject identity and AUs.

feasible: adj. 可行的

there exist(s) 存在,有。可用来替换there be句型

There exist some new problems such as being dishonest.

There exist 还是There exists,取决于后面主语的单复数。这实际是个完全倒装语序,exist是谓语动词,后面的名词是主语。There 起引导作用,本身无意义。

其实,英语中这种用法没有什么奇怪的。不单是exist,其他一些静态动词,如stand, sit, lie, live 都可以这样用。例如:There lives a big family in a village.

as regards 关于

as regards,in regards to 和with regards to都是 有关于 的意思. As regards sb. /sth “关于或(至于)某人/某事” 这个的 regards 作为动词存在. I have information as regards his past。

传统语法把这里的as视为跟which一样指代整个句子的关系代词,所以把as换成which也说得通.语法书上一般说as从句要放在句首.现代的看法是as引导的是个省略了主语的比较句.。

as的用法复杂主要在于其词性和词义多且缺乏对应关系,但是通过仔细分析归纳不难发现: 表示“当…时/随着”、“因为”或“尽管”这三个词义的as必然是连词。

de facto 事实上的,拉丁语。感觉可以做ajd、adv

de facto standard 事实标准 ; 约定俗成的标准 ; 标准

The general took de facto control of the country. 这位将军实际上控制了整个国家。

stand for 代表

可以用这个词代替represent, is short for

e.g. Superscripts E, M, H of AP stand for easy, medium and hard.

an array of 一批,大量

e.g. Addressing the intricacies of this question opens up an array of possibilities for high-fidelity character animation and mo- tion synthesis

assert 宣称、断言、维护、坚持

e.g. A number of contributions are asserted in the Introduction Section.

35. 连字符的使用,复合词

https://cn.chem-station.com/化学杂记/化学与英语/2017/03/hyphen(-)连字符的使用方法.html

英语中带「-」的复合词该怎么理解?有什么规律吗? - JenniferCook的回答 - 知乎 https://www.zhihu.com/question/38688753/answer/816294490

总的来说,复合词组合形式有很多种,甚至不加连字符的只是分开的多个单词的情况,没有特别靠谱的统一的规则,还是多查询词典。同时连字符在避免复合词歧义以及连接前缀和词干(通常是因为前缀以元音结尾,而词干以元音开头。例如 co-editor, pre-eminent)都有重要的作用。

36. due to, because of与owing to的用法区别

转载自:http://www.yywords.com/Article/201007/1602.html

三者均可表示“由于”、“因为”,按照传统语法:due to 主要引导表语,而 because of, owing to 两者都主要引导状语。如:

His illness is due to bad food. 他生病是由于吃了不好的食物。

The accident was due to careless driving. 这次车祸起因于驾驶疏忽。

He can’t come because of the bad weather. 他不能来是因为天气不好。

Owing to the rain, the match was cancelled. 比赛因雨被取消了。

但是在现代英语中,due to 也可用来引导状语,而 owing to 也可以用来引导表语。如:

由于交通拥挤他迟到了。

正:He was late due to [owing to, because of] the very heavy traffic.

正:Due to [Owing to, Because of] the very heavy traffic, he was late.

because of 通常只用来引导状语,若引导表语,主语通常应为代词。如:

It is all because of what you said. 那完全是因为你说的话。

英语中数学单位的单复数形式

作者:Vicky
链接:https://www.zhihu.com/question/393503086/answer/1217842790

除了1之外的所有数值,其后的度量单位都按照语法规律变复数,分数和后面直接增加了名词的情况下除外,不多说理论,举几个例子吧,更容易一些:

  • 3.5 kilograms
  • 0.2 kilograms( 小数同样用复数)
  • 0 degrees (celsius)
  • -1 degrees (celsius)

2 分数略有不同

  • 1/2 metre 虽然不是1,但可以理解成 省略了of a, half (of a) metre,数值上与其同等的0.5,却写成0.5 metres
  • 1½ metres 一又二分之一大于1,所以复数

3 如果其后直接加了名词则用单数,例句摘自剑桥英语字典。感觉下面是因为变成了复合形容词

  • a 15-metre yacht (非正式语境中可以省略hyphen -)
  • The women’s 200 metre event will be followed by the men’s 100 metres.

4 如果不是直接加名词,则还是遵守第一条和第二条规律,例句摘自剑桥英语字典

  • The boat is ten metres in length. (中间隔了介词)
  • I bought three kilograms of plums. (中间隔了介词)

5 单位符号(unit symbol)永远不变复数。比如kg,m,cm

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